SYNGNATHIDAE: Pipefishes
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| © K. Smith |
Numerous pipefish genera are endemic to southern Australia (e.g. Leptoichthys; Notiocampus; Vanacampus; Pugnaso; Kaupus; Mitotichthys; Histiogamphelus; Stipecampus; Hypselognathus). These genera often contain only one or two species, distributed in southern, south-eastern and/or south-western Australian States. A number of southern Australian endemic genera and their representative species, particularly those of limited known distribution and/or habitat specificity, are discussed in separate sections below, as species of conservation concern. At least four species are recorded as being endemic within South Australian waters only, e.g. Stigmatopora narinosa (Browne and Smith, 2007), Hypselognathus horridus, Solegnathus robustus, and Vanacampus vercoi (Kuiter, 2000, 2003).
Until recently, knowledge of the range, distribution and habitat requirements of pipefishes in southern Australia has generally been limited, and based on few studies and a small number of museum records. Recently, work by fish researchers such as R. Browne, K. Smith and members of the Marine life Society of S.A., has helped to clarify information on the distribution, relative abundance in particular locations, and habitat requirements of a number of pipefish species, particularly inshore, seagrass- and rubble-dwelling species that occur in South Australia.
The pipefish species from seagrass beds are amongst the most common and widely distributed. For example, pipefish are among the most abundant fishes in Western Port, Victoria (Environmental Protection Authority of Victoria, 1996, cited by Plummer et al., 2003). In contrast, there are few museum records of reef-inhabiting pipefish. Reef- and rubble-dwelling species are rarely observed without targeted searches, and some are difficult to sample. The provision of clear keys to their identification, assisted by accurate observations and photographic evidence from divers, would increase the knowledge of the ranges of reef- dwelling pipefish (Browne, 2004).
Some of the more commonly observed and/or more widely distributed pipefish species known from South Australia and other southern States, are not included in this overview of species of conservation concern in South Australia, these being:
Wide-Body Pipefish Stigmatopora nigra: An abundant species (or possibly a species complex) across the southern half of Australia, and also found in Tasmania, and New Zealand. Pipefishes in the genus Stigmatopora show a strong preference for seagrass habitat from an early juvenile stage (Jenkins and Wheatley, 1998), and this species mimics strap-like seagrass leaves in its movements, orientation and colour (shades of green and brown) (Howard and Koehn, 1985). S. nigra individuals grip seagrass leaves with their prehensile tails (Kendrick and Hyndes, 2003). Most South Australian records are from the gulfs region. Examples of locations in S.A. where S. nigra has been reported include Clinton Reserve; Barker Inlet, and unverified records from the Section Bank / Outer Harbour area in north-eastern Gulf St Vincent; metropolitan area of GSV (e.g. Marino), Onkaparinga estuary, western GSV (e.g. Port Giles – unverified records); eastern GSV (e.g. Port Willunga, and other locations); and estuarine creeks off Port Pirie in northern Spencer Gulf, and other parts of Spencer Gulf (Anonymous, 1993; Connolly, 1994; Cheshire et al., 2002; Fairhead et al., 2002a, 2002b; Tanner et al., 2003; R. Browne, unpubl. data, 2003; Hammer, 2006a; South Australian Museum records, cited in OZCAM database, 2007; K. Smith, pers. comm., 2007). In Tasmania, the species occurs in abundance in some areas, such as Georges Bay (Jordan et al., 1998). Stigmatopora nigra is also common throughout Victorian bays, such as Western Port (Edgar, 1995a; Environmental Protection Authority of Victoria, 1996, cited by Plummer et al., 2003), and occurs in and around a number of the Marine Parks and Sanctuaries in that State, such as Bunurong (in the South Gippsland area), and Corner Inlet, in intertidal and shallow subtidal Zostera / Heterozostera seagrasses, and sand habitats (Jenkins et al., 1997; Plummer, 2003). According to Plummer et al. (2003, citing Edgar and Shaw, 1995a), although the species is now commonly recorded in Western Port, it was found only in low abundance 15 years ago, during a survey of the population dynamics and feeding ecology of pipefish in that region (by Howard and Koehn, 1985). Reported depth range is usually shallow subtidal to about 35m deep (Dawson, in Gomon et al., 1994). S. nigra is often recorded in Zostera beds, but is also found in Posidonia seagrass (e.g. Kendrick and Hyndes, 2003), and has also been reported from mangroves (e.g. Smith and Hindell, 2005). It is noted that Wide-body Pipefish has as conservation status of Data Deficient in New Zealand (Department of Conservation, New Zealand, 2005). It is possible that more than one species exists over the range, and molecular biological comparison of specimens from New Zealand, South Australia and W.A. has been recommended (Browne, 2004). During the early and mid 2000s, a company in South Australia had a permit to collect a specified number of Wide-body Pipefish brood stock, culture the species, and export the offspring (Commonwealth Department of DEH, 2005). The species is not uncommon in South Australia, and therefore is not discussed further here.
Spotted Pipefish Stigmatopora argus: An abundant species, found around the southern half of Australia, including Tasmania. Spotted Pipefish occur, often in large numbers, in seagrass beds of various types, such as Posidonia species (e.g. P. australis; P. coriacea, and others), Amphibolis species, Zostera / Heterozostera, and mixed beds of any of the ‘forementioned (e.g. Bell et al., 1992; Jenkins et al., 1997; Rotherham and West, 2002; Cheshire et al., 2002; Plummer et al., 2003; Hyndes et al., 2003). Pipefishes in the genus Stigmatopora show a strong preference for seagrass habitat from an early juvenile stage (Jenkins and Wheatley, 1998), and the green or brown colouration of S. argus helps it to mimic strap-like seagrass leaves which they grasp with prehensile tails (Kendrick and Hyndes, 2003). In South Australia, the Spotted Pipefish is widespread across the State. Some examples of the many locations where the species has been recorded include southern Eyre Peninsula (photographs by J. Lewis, 2004); Spencer Gulf (e.g. Port Hughes – photographs by J. Lewis, 2003, 2005; photographs by K. Smith, pers. comm., 2007); parts of Gulf St Vincent, such as Port Giles, and Section Bank / Outer Harbour area (unverified records) (Fairhead et al., 2002a; Cheshire et al., 2002); Rapid Bay Jetty (Dragon Search records, cited in Baker, 2002d and 2005a); Second Valley (Smith, 2005, who reported sighting a male Spotted Pipefish with eggs), the Murray Mouth (Australian Anglers Association, 2005), and Port MacDonnell (K. Smith, pers. comm., 2006). The species is common throughout Victorian bays, such as Western Port, Swan Bay, and Corner Inlet, and also occurs in a number of the Marine Parks and Sanctuaries in that State (e.g. Bunurong and Corner Inlet), in seagrass and sand habitats (Edgar, 1995a; Jenkins et al., 1993, 1997; Environmental Protection Authority of Victoria, 1996; Jenkins et al., 1997; Saunders, 1997, cited by Plummer et al., 2003). According to Plummer et al. (2003), although the species is now commonly recorded in Western Port (according to Edgar and Shaw, 1995a), it was not found at all in Western Port in the previous decade, during a survey of the population dynamics and feeding ecology of pipefish in that region (by Howard and Koehn, 1985). S. argus has also been recorded in abundance in the Heterozostera seagrasses of Tasmanian bays, such as Georges Bay and Norfolk Bay (Jordan et al., 1998). During the early and mid 2000s, a company in South Australia had a permit to collect a specified number of Spotted Pipefish brood stock, culture the species, and export the offspring (Commonwealth Department of DEH, 2005). The species is not targetted by fishers, but it is noted that the Australian Anglers Association (2004, 2005) includes Spotted Pipefish in the list of national angling records, with the largest recorded specimen being 0.002kg, taken from Pelican Point in S.A., in 1984.
Port Phillip Pipefish Vanacampus phillipi: An abundant species found in estuaries and seagrass beds in shallow coastal waters across southern Australia. The Port Phillip Pipefish ranges from N.S.W. through to W.A., and is common in the gulfs and bays of the south coast (Dawson, in Gomon et al., 1994) particularly in Victorian bays such as Western Port and Swan Bay (EPA 1996, cited by Plummer et al., 2003), and in parts of South Australia. Port Phillip Pipefish is well camouflaged when lying among the leaf detritus that collects beneath seagrass canopies (Howard and Koehn, 1985, cited by Kendrick and Hyndes, 2003). A study in Victoria reported that brooding males were present in Western Port for 6 – 9 months of the year, and juveniles were recruited in summer and early autumn (Howard and Koehn, 1985). Examples of locations in S.A. where the species has been recorded include various locations in eastern and western Gulf St Vincent (abundant in some areas), northern Spencer Gulf, north-eastern Kangaroo Island, southern Eyre Peninsula, and the bays in eastern Great Australian Bight (e.g. Fairhead et al., 2002b; R. Browne, unpubl. data, 2003; Tanner et al., 2003; photographs by J. Lewis, 2003, 2004; Baker, 2005a,b; KBR, 2006; S.A. Museum records, cited in OZCAM database, 2007). In Tasmania, examples of locations where the Port Phillip Pipefish has been recorded include Georges Bay, Norfolk Bay and Prosser Bay (Jordan et al., 1998). Port Phillip Pipefish is also recorded in various marine protected areas (e.g. Bunurong Marine National Park, in the South Gippsland area of Victoria) (EPA 1996, cited by Plummer et al., 2003). During the early 2000s, there was a Commonwealth permit for the collection (for culturing purposes) of 10 juvenile V. phillipi per annum from Victorian waters (Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage, 2003a).
Mother-of-Pearl Pipefish Vanacampus margaritifer, a species known from southern Queensland, N.S.W., Victoria, S.A. and W.A., with most records being from New South Wales. Examples of locations in South Australia where the species has been recorded include Venus Bay in the eastern Great Australian Bight; the Port Lincoln area in south-western Spencer Gulf; Port Giles (unverified records) and Normanville in Gulf St Vincent, and Encounter Bay (Fairhead et al., 2002a; South Australian Museum and Museum of Victoria records, cited in OZCAM database, 2007; D. Muirhead, unpubl. data, cited by K. Smith, pers. comm., 2005). The Mother-of-Pearl Pipefish is found mostly among seagrass and other vegetation over sand and rubble, to depths of about 10m (Dawson, in Gomon et al., 1994). Two specimens have been taken from floating Sargassum plants (Dawson, 1985). The species is also reported from estuarine areas and coastal lagoons, such as those in central New South Wales (e.g. Pollard, 1994; Trnski 2001), and the Noosa River, in southern Queensland (Jones and Schlacher, 2001).
Several unidentified pipefish forms have been recorded in South Australia in recent years, and plans have been made to investigate the taxonomic status of these (e.g. Browne, 2007).
Conservation Status
Despite the apparent abundance and wide distribution of some species such as those mentioned above, all pipefishes are protected species under Commonwealth legislation, and also in most States of Australia, including South Australia, the latter under a 2006 regulation of the Fisheries Act.In general, pipefishes as a group are considered by some authorities to be vulnerable, due to their limited distribution, strong site association and habitat specificity, limited reproductive potential (e.g. number of eggs in a single batch is typically in the dozens to low hundreds, and brood size is small in the smaller pipefish species). These characteristics make populations vulnerable to decline from disturbance / damage to critical habitats (such as nearshore seagrasses), caused by fishing and boating activities, trawling and dredging, nearshore coastal developments and other factors. Bycatch in trawls and other fishing nets is also an issue for some species. Overseas, some pipefish species are also utilised in the traditional Chinese medicine trade (Vincent, 1996; Project Seahorse, 1999; Pogonoski et al., 2002; Martin-Smith and Vincent, 2006), which is one of the international concerns regarding the conservation of this group. However, use of South Australian pipefishes in this trade has not been recorded.
In South Australia, some pipefish populations may be vulnerable due to activities and impacts in gulf and estuarine areas, particularly over shallow seagrass beds. Examples include channel dredging and maintenance; coastal land reclamation and marina construction; netting; power-boating and jet-skiing (including propeller impacts that cause benthic damage and water turbidity); trawling; and pollution-induced seagrass decline, particularly from coastal discharges.
Bycatch
In Australia, the Commonwealth government considers interactions with pipefish as part of the ecological risk assessments for Commonwealth-managed fisheries. Under requirements of the EPBC Act 1999, any interactions of fisheries with syngnathids (which are protected under the Act) must be reported to the Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia). Along with other bycatch species, any interactions with syngnathids are to be recorded by Integrated Scientific Monitoring Programs (ISMP). Where reporting requirements or ISMP data show interactions, action is supposed to be taken by industry, scientists and management to reduce such interactions.Pipefish are recorded in the prawn trawl fisheries in South Australia (PIRSA, 2003; Baker, 2005a). A fishery-independent monitoring program (see PIRSA, 2003) was being undertaken during the early-mid 2000s, in order to document the species’ composition and abundance of pipefish caught in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Trawl fishery. However, recording and quantification of the syngnathid bycatch in other prawn trawl fisheries in S.A. (Gulf St Vincent, Investigator Strait, and eastern Great Australian bight) is likely to take considerably longer.
Collecting and Trade
A number of pipefish species are collected under permit in southern Australian States. For example:During the early 2000s, a Commonwealth permit existed for the collection each year of 10 juveniles each of Vanacampus phillipi (Port Phillip Pipefish), Stipecampus cristatus (Ring-backed Pipefish), and Heraldia nocturna (Upsidedown Pipefish), from Victorian waters, for culturing purposes (Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage, 2003a).
During the 2000s, a Commonwealth permit existed for the wild harvest of non-egg bearing seahorses, pipefish, and seadragons from W.A., in accordance with the provisions outlined Western Australian Marine Fish Aquarium Management Plan, prepared by the Fisheries Western Australia (FWA). A maximum of 750 specimens is permitted, and if the harvest in a given year exceeds this figure, Fisheries WA is required to demonstrate that take beyond that level is sustainable. The declaration is reviewed under such circumstances. Yearly reports must be provided by FWA to the Commonwealth, including information about total catch and catch per unit effort on a monthly basis by species and location; quantities, size, reproductive state and sex of individuals; total mortalities by species; and results and analysis of resource assessment forms (Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage, 2003a).
A number of pipefish species are exported for sale to aquaria. For example, during the 2000s, a Commonwealth permit existed for the export of Stigmatopora argus (Spotted Pipefish) and Stigmatopora nigra (Wide-bodied Pipefish) from an aquaculture facility in South Australia (Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage, 2003a; Commonwealth of Australia Gazette GN 26, 30th June, 2004).
Associated taxa
| Brush-Tail Pipefish / Brushtail Pipefish | Leptoichthys fistularius Kaup, 1853 |
| Javelin Pipefish | Lissocampus runa (Whitley, 1931) |
| Smooth Pipefish / Australian Smooth Pipefish | Lissocampus caudalis Waite and Hale, 1921 |
| Bass Strait Pipefish / Trawl Pipefish / Kimbla Pipefish | Kimblaeus bassensis Dawson, 1980 |
| Gale’s Pipefish / Gales Pipefish | Campichthys galei (Duncker, 1909) |
| Red Pipefish | Notiocampus ruber (Ramsay and Ogilby, 1886) |
| Ring-back Pipefish / Ringback Pipefish / Ring-backed Pipefish | Stipecampus cristatus (McCulloch and Waite, 1918) |
| Western Upside-down Pipefish / Upside-down Pipefish | Heraldia sp. 1 (in Kuiter, 2000) = the southern form of Heraldia nocturna Paxton, 1975 (Australian Museum, 2002c) |
| Sawtooth Pipefish | Maroubra perserrata Whitley, 1948 |
| Rhino Pipefish / Macleay’s Crested Pipefish | Histiogamphelus cristatus (Macleay, 1881) |
| Crested Pipefish / Brigg’s Pipefish / Brigg’s Crested Pipefish | Histiogamphelus briggsii McCulloch, 1914 |
| Knife-snout Pipefish | Hypselognathus rostratus (Waite and Hale, 1921) |
| Shaggy Pipefish / Prickly Pipefish | Hypselognathus horridus Dawson and Glover, 1982 |
| Tucker’s Pipefish | Mitotichthys tuckeri (Scott, 1942) |
| Hairy Pipefish | Urocampus carinirostris Castelnau, 1872 |
| Tiger Pipefish | Filicampus tigris (Castelnau, 1879) |
| Pug-nose Pipefish / Pug-nosed Pipefish | Pugnaso curtirostris (Castelnau, 1872) |
| Verco’s Pipefish | Vanacampus vercoi (Waite & Hale, 1921) |
| Long-Snout Pipefish | Vanacampus poecilolaemus (Peters, 1868) |
| Deep-Bodied Pipefish / Deepbody Pipefish | Kaupus costatus (Waite and Hale, 1921) |
| Southern Gulfs Pipefish / Gulf Pipefish | Stigmatopora narinosa (Browne and Smith, 2007) |
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