© Baker, J.L. (2009) Marine Species of Conservation Concern in South Australia Full citation Baker, J.L. (2009) Marine Species of Conservation Concern in South Australia: Volume 1 - Bony and Cartilaginous Fishes. Report for the South Australian Working Group for Marine Species of Conservation Concern. J. Baker (consultant); Science and Conservation Division, and Coast and Marine Conservation branches of S.A. Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH); Marine and Coastal Community Network of S.A. (MCCN), and Threatened Species Network (TSN). Web version published by Reef Watch, South Australia.

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Western Blue Groper

Family Name:	Labridae
Scientific Name:	Achoerodus gouldii (Richardson, 1843)
Recommended Status in S.A:	Near Threatened, possibly Vulnerable (A4). Should be protected under the Fisheries Management Act 2007
Rationale:  The Western Blue Groper (WBG) is a long-lived, slow-growing, late-maturing, site-associated, nearshore reef fish species that has a strong population structure, and changes sex with age. The large adults are slow-moving and inquisitive, and in some areas are known to approach divers and fishing boats. It is widely recognised that fish with such population dynamics and behaviour traits are vulnerable to over-exploitation and population decline. In addition, WBG are highly susceptible to barotrauma and survival rates of released fish are thought to be low. WBG are fished across most parts of the known range by both commercial (State and Commonwealth) and recreational fishers, using a variety of methods, and WBG is also a bycatch species on hook and line, and in nets and lobster pots. Fishers find it easy to locate large groper (particularly over clear-water offshore reefs, around islands, and off rocky headlands). Increased fishing technology during recent years has enabled more fishers to locate and target large adult WBG on offshore reefs and around islands, and such fishing has been heavily promoted within the charter boat industry during the past decade. Bag limits and boat limits exist across South Australia, but it is not known how effective these are in maintaining population structure and abundance. No stock assessments or fisheries assessments have been undertaken, and thus there is no firm knowledge of the population sizes and recruitment levels over time, or the total numbers taken per annum by commercial and recreational fishers, or of the sustainability of fishing under the current regulations. It is recognised that a low level of fishing mortality may be enough to keep a slow-growing, recruitment-limited species such as WBG in very low densities, even in the absence of intense fishing pressure from any source. Although there is a closure to WBG fishing in South Australia. Gulfs and Investigator Strait waters, and the species is also protected in a number of small Aquatic Reserves, it appears that this is insufficient as a means of protecting WBG in South Australia, because (i) the species does not occur in the upper and most of the central parts of either gulf due to a lack of suitable habitat and oceanographic conditions, and therefore only a small part of the species range in S.A. is formally protected; (ii) some fishers appear not to adhere to the prohibition of fishing for WBG in Investigator Strait; (iii) there has been increased targeting (and bycatch) of this species in offshore areas during the past decade, particularly by charter boats operating off the central and western coasts of S.A.; (iv) the species is part of the bycatch in Commonwealth-managed fisheries, with probable low survival of caught and released individuals; and (v) some reef fishers do not recognise juvenile WBG when they are caught as bycatch, and small specimens are thus retained for use as bait. A considerable number of reports (spanning three decades) have alluded to the decline of populations of this species in South Australia, and consequently, there have been various calls for the complete protection of WBG for at least 30 years. Recent surveys across much of the central and western coastal waters of South Australia have shown that (i) juvenile WBG abundance appears to be highest in a limited type of habitat (i.e. sheltered nearshore reef lagoon habitats adjacent to exposed coasts); (ii) densities of adult fish are low, and (iii) both adults and juveniles exist over a small depth range. Also, given its longevity and diet, WBG may be a “keystone” species in the reef habitats where it occurs. It is possible that the species qualifies for VU (A4) listing, if it can be inferred or suspected that a population size reduction of at least 30% has occurred over a 3 generation period (and considering the long life span of 1 generation of WBG), and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased, based on an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon, a decline in the area of occupancy, and/or the actual or potential levels of exploitation. For a number of years, various researchers have recommended that WBG be fully protected under the Fisheries Management Act 2007, and this call is reiterated here. Notably, in 2005, the S.A. Marine Scalefish Fisheries Management Committee supported the full protection of this species under legislation. An investigation of population numbers over space and time is recommended, the results of which might precede a listing of WBG under the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972, as a Vulnerable species.

Page Contents

Current Conservation Status

In S.A., fishing for WBG is prohibited in Spencer Gulf, Gulf St Vincent, Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage, under the Fisheries Management Act 2007
In southern Australia, Pogonoski et al. (2002) suggested as conservation status: Lower Risk - Conservation Dependent.
Australian Society of Fish Biology (ASFB) 2001 list: Lower Risk - Conservation Dependent
Previously, listed by ASFB Threatened Fishes Committee (1985) as Vulnerable in long term (10-15 years) (Harris, 1987, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002).

Distribution

Southern Australia

Achoerodus gouldii is distributed around southern Australia, from Port Phillip Bay in Victoria, through South Australia, to the Houtman Abrolhos in Western Australia (Hutchins and Swainston, 1986; Yearsley et al., 1999, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002).
In Victoria, examples of locations where WBG has been recorded recently include the Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park, and around Phillip I. (Plummer et al., 2003; Edmunds et al., 2003).

South Australia

In S.A., the species is known from most parts of the State, but is less common on shallow rocky reefs east of Investigator Strait and the Murray River Mouth (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003), although it occurs in deeper waters south of Kangaroo Island, to Se South Australia (AFMA data, cited by S. Bryars, pers. comm. 2008). In general, examples of regions where WBG occur include the following (from S.A. Museum records F 02008 [1937] and F 05207 [1984]; Kuiter, 1983; Branden et al., 1986; Muirhead, 1998b; DIASA, undated; Aquanaut, undated; KI-AMCS, 2000; J. Baker, pers. obs., 1993, 2002, 2003; Dragon Search S.A. database records, 1996-2002; ANSA sports fishing records, 1980, 1987, 1992, 1994; MLSSA dive report, 2003; Reef Watch, 2003; Reynolds, 2003b; Halstead, DEH, pers. comm., 2003; survey and diving records, 1996-2002; commercial and recreational fishing records – see Baker, 2004 for summary; Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2002, 2003a,b, 2004; Shepherd et al., 2005; Currie and Sorokin, 2005; Edgar et al., 2006; SESSF bycatch records 1997-2007):
* southern metropolitan Gulf St Vincent (e.g. Noarlunga and Aldinga) and Fleurieu Peninsula (e.g. Carrickalinga / Normanville, Rapid Head, Second Valley, Newland Head, and other locations); * Victor Harbor / Encounter Bay area, and around islands in the vicinity;
* the upper South-East (Lacepede Bay – Guichen Bay area, and associated headlands); * western, northern, north-eastern and eastern Kangaroo Island (including relatively high numbers at various sites between Kangaroo Head and Penneshaw); * lower Yorke Peninsula and Investigator Strait (e.g. bays on the western side of the Yorke Peninsula “foot” / coastal waters off Innes National Park; Chinaman’s Hat Island, Cape Spencer, Crystal Bay, Reef Heads, West Cape; Althorpe Island; “bommies” off Althorpe Island; Seal Island, Haystack Island; Troubridge Point / Hill; Edithburgh; Port Vincent); * mid-Spencer Gulf (e.g. Moonta Bay), and lower Spencer Gulf (including islands in Thorny Passage and the Sir Joseph Banks Group); * Wedge Island and other islands in the Gambier group; * bottom of Eyre Peninsula (such as Fishery Bay, Cape Wiles, Groper Bay, Cape Carnot, D’Anville Bay, Liguanea Island, Avoid Bay, Point Whidbey, Greenly Island and other islands nearshore and offshore, and the southern coastal waters off Lincoln National Park); * the Neptune Islands; * the Investigator group of islands off western Eyre Peninsula (where WBG occur in groups, often around large “bommies”); * various headlands, bays and islands off western Eyre Peninsula and the eastern Great Australian Bight (e.g. Elliston area, Point Westall, Cape Bauer, Point Labatt, Olive Islands, Ceduna, Fowlers Bay, Nuyts Archipelago and other locations); * deeper offshore reefs from southern Kangaroo Island to the SE of the State.
Examples of locations in S.A. where juvenile and sub-adult WBG occur in nearshore habitats include southern Yorke Peninsula; Fleurieu Peninsula; Encounter Bay; Investigator Strait, northern and north-eastern Kangaroo Island; south-western Spencer Gulf / lower eastern Eyre Peninsula; upper, middle and lower sections of western Eyre Peninsula; Groper Bay on Flinders I., and part of the coast along the eastern Great Australian Bight (S.A. recreational diving records; Shepherd and Brook, 2002; Shepherd et al., 2002; S. Shepherd and J. Baker, pers. obs. 2002 and 2003; C. Halstead, DEH, pers. comm., 2003; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004, 2005; S. Shepherd, pers. comm., 2006).
In a survey of the distribution of WBG along southern Eyre Peninsula, Shepherd et al. (2005) reported two “hotspots” of recruitment: Memory Cove, and behind the reef at Point Avoid. On western Eyre Peninsula, Smooth Pool and Speeds Point were also shown to be sites with high abundance of juveniles (Shepherd and Brook, 2004). Groper Bay on Flinders Island (Investigator Group) is also a “hotspot” for recruitment of WBG (S. Shepherd, pers. comm., 2006).
In a study of the relative abundance and distribution of WBG on the West Coast of South Australia, densities of sub-adult WBG were in the range 2-9 per 500 m², about twice the densities of those on southern Yorke Peninsula (Shepherd and Brook, 2004).
Examples of locations in South Australia where mature adults have been recorded include the NW and NE coasts of Kangaroo I. (from Cape Borda to Stokes Bay, and from Penneshaw to Cape Willoughby); southern Kangaroo Island (where one fishing authority described WBG as being “very common”); SW Yorke Peninsula (Althorpe Is and Chinaman’s Hat I.); the Gambier Island group (e.g. Wedge I., and South-West Rocks); parts of southern Eyre Peninsula (e.g. off headlands adjacent to exposed bays, such as Wanna and Redbanks, and around islands, such as Greenly I.); headlands off western Eyre Peninsula (e.g. Point Westall, Speeds Point); Neptune Islands, Investigator group of islands (e.g. Pearson I., Ward I.) and Nuyts Archipelago in the eastern Great Australian Bight (DIASA undated; and other S.A. dive records; J. Baker, pers. obs., February and October, 1993; Mensforth, 2001a; Shepherd et al., 2002, Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004, 2005; Shepherd et al., 2005).
Shepherd and Brook (2007) found that abundances of juveniles, sub-adults and adults all declined significantly from west to east over 2000 km of coast from the centre of the species range at Esperance in W.A. to its eastern extent in SE South Australia.

Habitat

Juveniles

Young juveniles <10 cm total length are rarely seen, but are believed to settle in sheltered macroalgae habitat on shallow rocky bottom (Shepherd et al., 2002). The young juveniles less than 10cm may be well camouflaged in nearshore macroalgae beds, less than 2m deep. One such individual (kelp-coloured, but otherwise of very similar appearance to adult WBG, including the thick fleshy upper lip, and the characteristic pectoral fins), was observed hiding amongst Ecklonia plants, in the shallow subtidal at Granite Island in Encounter Bay (J. Baker, pers. obs., 2003).
In general, juveniles usually occur in shallow, relatively protected waters less than 5m (and commonly 1m), adjacent to exposed coasts and estuaries (Crowe et al., 1999; Shepherd and Brook, 2004, 2007; Shepherd et al., 2005).
A study on western Eyre Peninsula (Shepherd and Brook, 2004) considered that coastal topography may be an important influence on juvenile and sub-adult abundance. The study also reported that habitat correlates of juvenile abundance included depth, rocky bottom relief and exposure to swell (Shepherd and Brook, 2004). Lagoons on exposed coasts, or partly enclosed bays (sometimes with lagoons), with likely high retention of settling larvae, had relatively high juvenile abundances, whereas open sites with little capacity to retain larvae, had much lower abundances. Shallow and sheltered rocky areas, especially lagoons behind high energy coasts seem to be consistently the most important requirement for juveniles (Shepherd and Brook, 2004). Similarly in southern W.A., in the Esperance area, juveniles 5cm – 10cm TL have been observed at Nine Mile Beach, in a back-reef lagoon (1m – 2m deep) behind a calcareous barrier reef, and also at a sheltered rocky beach site in Duke of Orleans Bay (Shepherd, 2006).
With increasing size, juveniles move into deeper water (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, cited by Shepherd, 2005; shepherd & Brook, 2007).

Sub-adults and Adults

Sub-adults (20-60 cm TL) are more common in inshore waters on exposed coasts, and adults (>60 cm TL) in adjacent deeper water > 10m, particularly around rocky reefs (including granite boulder reef around islands, caves / caverns, crevasses, vertical rock faces, large rock outcrops with overhangs, “bommies”, gutters, etc).
A study on the western side of Eyre Peninsula showed that the abundance of sub-adult WBG was positively correlated with the relief of rocky bottom (Shepherd and Brook, 2004). Sub-adults range extensively from juvenile to adult habitat (Shepherd and Brook, 2004).
Adults are found at depths of >10m, on coastal and offshore rocky reefs (Crowe et al., 1999; Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004; Shepherd et al.,. 2005). In a study on the West Coast of South Australia, overlap occurred between juvenile and sub-adult habitat, and sub-adult and adult habitat (Shepherd and Brook, 2004).
Reef habitats in which WBG are observed are often vegetated with large brown macroalgae, with an understorey of mixed red, green and brown macroalgae, and coralline crusts (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004, 2005, Shepherd, 2006).
Commonly published maximum depth of WBG is about 40m deep (Gomon and Russell, in Gomon et al., 1994; Kuiter, 1996a; Pogonoski et al., 2002); however capture in Commonwealth-licensed fisheries (SESSF bycatch data 1997-2007), as well as capture by recreational line fishers operating in deep waters (Mensforth, 2001a; Murton, 2008), would suggest that the maximum depth at which WBG occurs is at least 80m, possibly deeper.

Notes on Biology and Behaviour

Age and Growth

Glover (1967, cited by Gillanders, 1999 and Shepherd et al., 2002) estimated that WBG is 40 cm long at 8 years, 60 cm at 15 years and 80 cm at 25 years. According to Shepherd et al. (2002), these may represent optimum growth rates because a 72 cm fish from Pearson I. was aged at 63 years. A growth curve for this species, based on accumulated information from scale and otolith readings, shows that a groper at its maximum recorded size of ~ 1.6 m. must be at least 50 years old (Shepherd and Baker, 2008). Recent studies at the Centre for Fish and Fisheries Research in W.A. have found a maximum age of 70 years, which is by far the greatest age recorded for any species of wrasse (Coulson et al. 2007). However, most of the growth does occur in the first 20 years (Coulson et al. 2007).
The Blue Groper is the largest carnivorous fish on littoral rocky reefs in southern Australia, reaching a size of at least 1.75m (May and Maxwell, 1986; Hutchins and Swainston, 1986; Gomon and Russell, in Gomon et al. 1994; Gillanders, 1999; Shepherd and Brook, 2005).
The record weight of a captured WBG is reported to be 39.46 kg, being a specimen taken in W.A. (Hutchins and Swainston, 1986, 2001). One of the maximum sizes recorded by the Australian Anglers Association Records Authority is 38.7kg, a specimen caught at Reef Head (Yorke Peninsula) in S.A., in 1966 (Australian Anglers Association, 2003). Other record sizes include a specimen of 35.04kg, caught in 1975 at Windy Harbour in W.A. (Australian Anglers Association, WA Division Inc., 2002a), and a fish of 34.7 kg speared at Point Drummond (S.A.) in 1963 (South Australian Spearfishing Records). According to Fishnet (2004), the species can reach 50kg, and growth curve data support this (Shepherd and Baker, 2008).

Diet and Feeding Behaviour

Generally, WBGs eat crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms. The diet of juveniles is mainly small epifaunal crustaceans, and small bivalves and gastropods (Shepherd, 2005; Shepherd and Brook, 2005). The diet of sub-adults and adults also includes small crustaceans, but an increasing proportion of larger decapod crustacean, molluscan, and echinoid species are taken with increasing size of groper, as they adopt a wider range of feeding modes (Shepherd, 2005; Shepherd and Brook, 2005). Similarly, the related species Achoerodus viridis consumes a wide variety of prey items including crustaceans (tanaids, amphipods and crabs), molluscs (mussels, limpets and gastropods) and echinoderms (sea urchins) (Gillanders, 1995b, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002). In the eastern species A. viridis, diet selectivity depends on the size of the individual, habitat, site-specificity and temporal and spatial changes (Gillanders, 1995b, op. cit.), and these influences on diet selectivity are likely to also apply to A. gouldii.
In a study of the foraging ecology of WBG at Althorpe I. in S.A. (Shepherd and Brook, 2005), small sub-adult WBG foraged mainly by taking feeding bites in algal canopies, or small mussels from bare rock. With increasing size, sub-adults foraged increasingly for macro-epifauna in algal mats, and switched to more efficient feeding by “suction-bites” in which larger amounts of algal turf and macro-epifauna were sucked into the mouth. With “suction-biting”, the fish can dislocate its lower jaw to open its mouth very widely. It then bites on the algal turf, which typically is full of small crustaceans living within the mat, and strains out the algal and detritus through the gills retaining the crustaceans. For large animals like the urchin and abalone, WBG use the ram-and-bite technique to crush and then remove the prey from the substratum. During the feeding study, WBG at all sizes were most active, in terms of feeding bite rate in the morning and late afternoon, and least active in the early afternoon (Shepherd and Brook, 2005).
Sub-adults spent about half their time in shelter and foraged, swam or rested for the remainder. With increasing size, bite rates declined, the period of emergence increased, and the proportion of time emergent spent swimming increased, while the proportion of time spent resting decreased, and that spent foraging changed little.
Considering the longevity and diet of WBG, it may be a keystone species in temperate reef ecosystems of which it is a part (e.g. see Shepherd and Clarkson, 2001). The WBG, like other wrasses, may play a key role in coastal ecosystems by controlling the abundance of crabs (which predate on small abalone), and sea-urchins (which consume epibenthic macroalgae) (Shepherd and Clarkson, 2001, cited by Shepherd et al., 2002).

Reproduction

The WGB is a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite i.e. all fish are initially female with many individuals changing sex to males. Sex change is typically accompanied by a colour change from green to blue (Glover, 1967, cited by Shepherd et al., 2002; Gillanders, 1999; Coulson et al., 2007). A recent study in south-western W.A. reported that WBG females typically first become mature at about 650 mm and 15-20 years, and typically change sex to males at 800-850 mm length and 35-39 years of age (Coulson et al., 2007). As sex change occurs over a narrower range in lengths (650-900 mm) than in ages (15-49 years), it is apparently related more to size than age (Coulson et al., 2007). In addition, not all females are destined to become males (Coulson et al., 2007).
WBG appear to live in small social groups that comprise one male, one or two females, and several sub-adults (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004). If a male is no longer present within a group, the dominant female will change colour and sex (Edgar, 2000).
Batch fecundity estimates for 12 females of WBG from SW W.A. ranged from 150,420 to 402,912, with very strong evidence that annual fecundity is not fixed prior to the onset of the spawning season (Coulson et al., 2007).
There is no specific information available on recruitment strength, although recent surveys have shown the existence of “hotspots” of juvenile recruitment, where abundance and density of juveniles is highest (e.g. Shepherd and Brook, 2004; Shepherd et al., 2005).
Larvae of WBG have a duration of some weeks to months. WBG spawn between early winter and mid-spring (Coulson et al. 2007), and it is thought that the larvae hatched in the west are caught up in the Leeuwin current and carried toward the east (Shepherd, 2006). Surveys of WBG (e.g. Shepherd and Brook, 2003a, 2004; Shepherd et al., 2002, 2005; Shepherd, 2006, and unpublished) from Esperance in W.A. through to the South East of S.A. show a linear decline in abundance of juveniles (< 20 cm) and sub-adults from west to east. It is possible that WBG larvae from spawning adults in the eastern Bight are carried easterly, and populate S.A. shores with small groper, with fewer recruits as more easterly sites are reached (Shepherd, 2006).

Behaviour

Generally, adult WBG are strongly site associated, and do not move far from their “home reefs”, which provide cover and feeding opportunities. Young-of-the-year are found in the shallowest inshore reefs, and they move into slightly deeper water (2 – 3 m deep) as they grow. The next sub-adult stage lasts for about 10 years, during which time the greenish-coloured individuals remain on sheltered, nearshore reefs. Studies in S.A. have shown that WBG at this stage (about 20 – 60 cm long) occur in densities of about 1 to 8 per 100m of coastline (Shepherd, 2005). In some areas, the fish move into deeper water as they continue to grow. Older, sexually mature gropers are usually found in deeper water (e.g. 20+ m), and some migrate further into even deeper waters, to about 50m (Shepherd, 2005).
In a study of the species relative abundance and distribution on northern Kangaroo Island (Shepherd et al., 2002), adult males occupied a home range, which at several sites was estimated to vary from 4,000 to 16,000 m². At some sites, males exclusively occupied about an 80 - 120 m section of the coast. Females and sub-adults were found to be strongly site-associated, and swam in loose aggregations (Shepherd et al., 2002). At the Investigator Group of islands in the eastern Great Australian Bight, a related study showed that a site-associated male WBG wandered over a home-range of up to 8000 m² (Shepherd et al., 2002).
Males occasionally engage in territorial disputes over boundaries (Shepherd, 2005). An inshore to offshore movement of sub-adults to adults is also supported by the observations of Coulson et al. (2007).

Other Information

WBG are cleaned by species such as Western Cleaner Clingfish Cochleoceps’s bicolor (which also enter the groper’s mouth and opercular openings), Moonlighter Tilodon sexfasciatum, and Old Wife Enoplosus armatus, at “cleaning stations” (Shepherd et al., 2005).

Fisheries Information

WBG are caught commercially in Western Australia and South Australia. The reported commercial catches per annum are an order of magnitude lower in S.A., compared with W.A., and the species is considered to be commercially important in W.A. (Fairclough, 2004). Approximate annual historical catches from W.A. and S.A. are shown in the graph below (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Commercial Catch of Western Blue Groper, 1976/77 to 1999/2000

(from BRS tables, 2004a)

South Australia – Commercial

Commercial fishers licensed in the South Australian Marine Scalefish Fishery (MSF) are no longer permitted to land and sell WBG. Examples of historical State-wide catches are provided below. Examples of areas where the species was taken by commercial MSF fishers include the eastern Great Australian Bight (including waters south of Fowlers Bay, also deeper waters seaward of Ceduna and Streaky Bay, on the upper west coast of South Australia, and the mid-west Coast / western Eyre Peninsula, seaward of Anxious Bay / Elliston area); deeper waters off southern Eyre Peninsula; the deeper waters of western Investigator Strait (north-western Kangaroo Island); also around the Neptune Islands and other islands south of Spencer Gulf; deeper waters south of Kangaroo Island; deeper waters seaward of the Coorong coast, and to a lesser extent, deeper waters of the lower South East coast (SARDI data, unpublished). Johnson (1982) reported commercial landings between 1976 and 1980 from the following ports; Baird Bay, Ceduna, Coffin Bay, Corny Point, Elliston, Fowlers Bay, Kingscote, Marion Bay, Pondalowie Bay, Port Kenny, Port Lincoln, Streaky Bay, Thevenard, and Venus Bay, with most of the catch landed at Port Lincoln, Elliston, Marion Bay and Streaky Bay. During the late 1980s / early 1990s and late 1990s / early 2000s, 5 or fewer commercial fishers have reported the species in their catches, hence those data are not provided below, for reasons of confidentiality (Table 8).

Table 8 Commercial Catch and Effort for Western Blue Groper in South Australia, 1985/86 to 2000/01
Year	Commercial Catch (t)	Target Effort (boat days)	Target Effort (man days)	Number of Licences catching Blue Groper
1985/86	1.5	1	1	7
1986/87	3.8	0	0	13
1987/88	*	*	*	*
1988/89	*	*	*	*
1989/90	*	*	*	*
1990/91	*	*	*	*
1991/92	3.2	0	0	7
1992/93	1.7	0	0	10
1993/94	3.2	2	4	9
1994/95	9.1	0	0	15
1995/96	5.9	0	0	13
1996/97	4.2	0	0	17
1997/98	2.3	0	0	10
1998/99	~1	*	*	*
1999/00	~1	*	*	*
2000/01	0	*	*	*
(from Knight et al., 2002; SARDI Aquatic Sciences data, 2003)

In the Eastern Great Australian Bight of S.A., the reported catch of WBG in 1999/2000 was 1t, but there are no records of discards, or of the quantity recorded as ‘mixed species’. These figures do not include amounts reported by Commonwealth-only licence holders working outside State waters (K. Jones, pers. comm., cited by Shepherd et al., 2002).
WBG are marketed and sold occasionally in fish shops in South Australia (J. Baker, pers. obs., 2002-2003), although these catches can now only come from the Commonwealth shark fishery (see below).
Off South Australia, WBG are caught as bycatch in Commonwealth-managed finfish and shark fisheries in deeper waters. A study by Walker et al. (2003) of the bycatch from South Australia in the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), showed that an average of 6 (S.E.= 4) and 14 (S.E. = 7) WBG are caught per 100,000 hook-hours (= 1000km hours), using 6 inch and 6 ½ inch mesh nets, respectively. The total catch over the 1998-2001 period was reported to be 21 WBG, and all were retained. More recent bycatch data from the SESSF indicates that catches of blue groper are considerably higher than the estimate made by Walker et al. (2003) with annual take of around 1-2.5 tonnes from 1999-2007 (See graph below). The current possession limit in the Southern Shark Fishery is 50kg per trip, when taken from South Australian or Tasmanian / Bass Strait waters (AFMA, 2001b; 2004e). However, once the trip limit has been reached it may not always be possible to release surplus fish alive due to the effects of barotrauma (see later).

Figure 4 Aggregated logbook bycatch data for blue groper from the Gillnet, Hook and Trap sector of the Commonwealth’s Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery for the period 1997-2007 (N.B. Both WBG and eastern blue groper (EBG) were recorded in the database for SA waters, but EBG does not occur in SA - thus the EBG records were changed to WBG. There is some lack of correspondence in the data, between number and weight of fish being recorded – thus there may be some inaccuracies with the data shown. Source: Australian Fisheries Management Authority data, cited by S. Bryars, pers. comm.)

WBG are also taken as bycatch in rock lobster fisheries in southern Australia, but are no longer able to be retained in South Australia. Prescott and Xiao (2001, Table 5), reported that, in terms of numbers caught, wrasses (Labridae) were the second largest group of bycatch species (after leatherjackets) in the Northern Zone Rock Lobster Fishery in S.A., according to a sampling of 32,000 pots in 1991 – 1992. During that period, 1127 Labrids were caught in pots during the bycatch sampling program, of which 177 fish were Blue-throated Wrasse, 10 were WBG, 2 were "parrotfish", and 938 were unspecified species "in the Labridae family". For the Southern Zone (21,000 pots sampled), 205 Labrids were reportedly caught during the 1991-92 season, including 9 specified as WBG, and 30 “parrotfish” (Prescott and Xiao, 2001, Table 5). In a more recent bycatch survey in the S.A. Rock Lobster Fishery (Brock et al., 2004), catches were higher in the Southern Zone than the Northern Zone. If the logbook data are an accurate representation of the catches for those numbers of pot lifts, then annual catches of WBG in the S.A. Rock Lobster Fishery may be in the vicinity of 100-200 specimens in the Southern Zone, compared with about 10 specimens in the Northern Zone (Table 9).

Table 9 Proportional Catch of Western Blue Groper in the S.A. Rock Lobster Fishery
Northern Zone	No. pot lifts (and percentage of total)	No. A. gouldii specimens caught
2001/02	320,003 (51%)	4
2002/03	265,843 (47%)	4
Southern Zone	No. pot lifts (and percentage of total)	No. A. gouldii specimens caught
2001/02	545,886 (60%)	61
2002/03	486,155 (57%)	117
from Log Book Monitoring 2001-2003 (Brock et al., 2004)

South Australia – Recreational

Gomon and Russell (in Gomon et al., 1994) reported that the species has long been exploited by anglers and spear fishers due to its great size and “excellent eating quality”.
In South Australia, there is a closure to fishing in Spencer Gulf, Gulf St Vincent, Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage. Outside of these areas, the species is still permitted to be caught (but see Management Notes below, on a decision by management in 2005 to fully protect this species). In 2008, the minimum size limit of 60cm, and maximum size limit of 100cm still applied, as did the recreational bag limit of 2 WBG, with a boat limit of 6 (PIRSA, 2008).
Recreational fishers and charter boats are known to take WBG in various parts of South Australia, such as waters south of Spencer Gulf and southern Yorke Peninsula, and north-west of Kangaroo Island, and islands south of the gulfs area (e.g. Wedge Island and South-West Rocks); also southern Kangaroo Island; southern Eyre Peninsula coast and islands (e.g. Cape Carnot, Greenly Island), and the Investigator Group (e.g. Pearson I.). WBG (including large specimens over 30kg) are caught along numerous parts of the west coast of South Australia, including rocky headlands (e.g. Speeds Point, Cape Bauer, Cape Radstock, Calca Peninsula), and islands (e.g. Olive Island, and the Investigator Group) (Capel, 1994; ANSA, 1999; Mensforth, 2001a; Fishnet, 2002, and other records cited in Baker, 2004). Pearson Island, the Neptune Is. and the islands of Nuyts Archipelago have been described as “premier offshore groper haunts”, for recreational fishers, and the rocky coastline of Coffin Bay National Park has been described as “probably the pick of the land-based areas” (Mensforth, 2001a). WBG are described as “abundant around Cape Bauer and other headlands in this area but they are difficult to land because of their large size and nature of the terrain” (Fishnet, 2002). WBG are promoted as a reef fish species that can be caught by charter boats operating from southern Yorke Peninsula, although it is noted that taking this species is prohibited in Investigator Strait and associated islands (see above). Charter boat promotional materials and trip reports show that large specimens are also taken in western Investigator Strait (north-western Kangaroo Island); southern Spencer Gulf (e.g. caught by charter boat fishers, between Wedge Island and Thistle Island), South Neptune Island and other islands (charter boat fishing), and southern Eyre Peninsula (by charter boats that depart from Port Lincoln).
Charter boat operators promote the catching of large WBG in the southern Spencer Gulf (e.g. between Wedge I. and Thistle I., at about 50 m deep). Charters operating out of southern Yorke Peninsula (e.g. Marion Bay / Pondalowie Bay area) that visit offshore reefs and islands, also promote the catching of large WBG, as do charters that visit locations along the Far West Coast of S.A. (such as Fowler’s Reef, Fowlers Bay and other locations). At these sites, fishers catch large and very large WBG (some over 1 m), and this species is advertised as one of the prime finfish species targeted during such fishing trips (e.g. Murton, 2003; and charter boat fishing promotional materials / web pages, 2003 - 2008). In some clear water areas, large Blue Groper can be seen from the surface, which increases the chance of them being captured (Mensforth, 2001a). Some fishers puncture the swim bladder to deflate it, and then release the groper (e.g. see Mensforth, undated); however it is reported that large groper from waters deeper than 25m rarely survive the physiological shock of being brought to the surface, regardless of this procedure (Mensforth, 2001a).
Previously, during the past two decades in which the charter fishing industry has expanded in South Australia, charter boats were not required to submit records of their catches of WBG to relevant authorities. However in October 2004, a Draft Management Plan for Charter Boat Fishing in South Australia was introduced (PIRSA, 2004). The plan, which came into effect in 2005 (PIRSA, 2005b; Presser and Mavrakis, 2005), recommended that in all waters of the State other than those which are closed to fishing of WBG (i.e. Gulf waters, Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage), catches of this species be restricted to 2 per person, for charters with less than 4 passengers, and 1 per person for charters with 4, 5 or more passengers. For multi-day trips (i.e. longer than 24 hours), a catch limit of 3 times the per person limit for 1 day trips would apply. Under the new regulations, charters are now required to fill in daily logs of catches, including the number of undersized and oversized fish caught and returned to the water (PIRSA, 2005b).  In S.A., size limits, bag limits and boat limits for charters and their passengers now exist for the catches of WBG outside of Spencer Gulf, Gulf St Vincent and Investigator Strait waters. Knight et al. (2008) reported that 27 WBG were caught and retained by charter fishers during the period September 2005 to June 2006, and 36 were retained from July 2006 to June 2007. During that 2 year period, 31 WBG of legal size and 20 WBG of under minimum size were reported to have been caught and released. In 2005 the S.A. Marine Scalefish Management Committee had agreed to full legislative protection of WBG, hence the species may be removed from the list of permitted catches in the S.A. charter boat industry.
Recreational fishing groups and associations record maximum sizes of WBG caught in each State (e.g. ANSA State Record chart for South Australia). Examples of locations where recreational anglers have caught record sizes include the Ceduna area on the west coast; the coastal waters and islands off the bottom of Eyre Peninsula; and the Gambier group of islands (e.g. Wedge I.) (ANSA, 1999).
Young WBG (green “parrotfish”) are caught as bycatch by rock and shore fishers in some areas such as southern Yorke Peninsula, and used as bait (S. Shepherd, pers. obs., 2002; Shepherd, 2006). The extent of this practice, and the numbers taken, has not been investigated.
WBG is also promoted as a species for spear fishers to catch in South Australia (Smith, 2000; International Freediving and Spearfishing News, undated). Previously, Johnson (1985a) noted that WBG was one of the species speared in shore-based and boat-based spearfishing competitions in S.A. during the early 1980s, despite it being an ineligible species for weighing in during those competitions.
A National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey in 2000-2001 estimated that between 394 and 414 WBG were caught by recreational fishers in South Australia during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001), and the majority of these were kept (Henry and Lyle, 2003; Jones and Doonan, 2005). The S.A. catch represents about 13% of the national total (Jones and Doonan, 2005, and SARDI data, cited by Shepherd and Baker, in prep.) Examples of fishing regions in which WBG catches were recorded during the survey period include “Tumby Bay”, “Port Lincoln”, and “Stenhouse Bay”. There was also an example of 6 “unspecified groper” caught off the mid South East coast, seaward of Millicent (NRIFS data, unpublished).

Western Australia – Commercial

WBG is one of the scalefish species taken in Western Australia’s Joint Authority Southern Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery (JASDGDLF), a fishery that extends from the Bunbury area in southern W.A., across to the S.A. / W.A. border, and is managed by the Commonwealth Government and W.A. Fisheries. WBG are also taken in the West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery (WCDGDLF), a similar fishery to the JASDGDLF, which operates from the northern edge of the JASDGDLF through to approximately Kalbarri (Crowe et al., 1999; McAuley and Simpfendorfer, 2003). These fisheries use power-operated demersal gill-nets and long-lines, and mainly target several shark species; however a number of scalefish are also caught as by-product. Scalefish species are an integral part of the catch of shark fishers, representing 15 - 20 per cent of their catch by weight, and commonly caught scalefish species include Southern Blue Morwong (Queen Snapper), WBG, Pink Snapper, West Australian Dhufish and Boarfish species (Department of Fisheries W.A.,  2001).  In 2003, about 24 tonnes of WBG were taken by the JASDGDLF along the South Coast region of W.A., and 4t were taken in the WCDGDLF (Gaughan and Chidlow, in Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c). In 1999/2000 in the JASDGDLF, WBG constituted 13% and 23.5% of the scalefish catch (and scalefish comprised 16% and 13% of the total catch) in Zones 1 and 2 respectively (Fisheries Research Division, 2001). Previously, Simpfendorfer (1999a) reported that in the Western Australian temperate shark fishery (previously called the WATSF) in 1995/96, WBG comprised 5% of the total fish bycatch on the west coast, 19% on the south-west coast, and 20% on the south coast. McAuley and Simpfendorfer (2003) reported that during the period 1994 to 1999, WBG accounted for 15% (about 30t) of the mean annual scalefish catch in the two demersal gillnet and demersal long-line fisheries, and that the catch of WBG remained fairly steady over this five-year period. The authors considered that the reported catch may be an underestimate, due to high commercial catch rates at unobserved times and locations. A wide size range (35 – 109 cm) of WBG has been caught in the W.A. shark fisheries; however the majority are in the size range 50 – 85 cm, and the average size caught is 65 cm (SD = 9) FL, based on a sample of 895 WBG individuals (McAuley and Simpfendorfer, 2003). Catches of scalefish species in W.A.’s demersal gillnet and demersal long-line fisheries, such as Southern Blue Morwong (Nemadactylus valenciennesi), WBG (Achoerodus gouldii), Dhufish (Glaucosoma hebraicum) and Boarfish (Pentaceropsis recurvirostris) amounted collectively to 125 t in 1998/99, 134 t in 1999/2000, and 56 t in 2000/01 (Caton and McLoughlin, 2000; Caton, 2002). About 19.9 t of WBG was taken in the JASDGDLF in 2000/01 (Borg and McAuley, 2004).
WBG are taken as an incidental catch in the W.A. open access “wetline fishery”, which encompasses all activities associated with the unrestricted Western Australian fishing boat licence (FBL) (Crowe et al., 1999). In this large, unrestricted fishery, WBG are taken incidentally by hand line, drop line and hand-hauled gillnets, collectively over a large expanse of the W.A. coast, between the Geraldton / Abrolhos Islands area, and the W.A. / S.A. border. During the period 1991/92 to 1998/99, the annual recorded wetline catch ranged between about 3.5 t and 9.3 t, with catches between 6 t and 8 t in four of those seven years (from figure in Crowe et al., 1999). Because of its geographic spread, WBG is mostly caught by licensed fishing boats based on the south or south west coasts of W.A., and on a “per fishing block” basis, the largest catches per block are made between Perth and Jurien Bay in the north, and in the Esperance area in the south. WBG are also taken along most of the coast between Fremantle and Albany, and off accessible nearshore parts of the western Great Australian Bight. Most catches are very low per licensed fishing boat, with only one boat reporting wetline catches of more than 1 t in three of the seven years to 1999. A total of 178 licensed fishing boats reported taking WBG as part of their wetline activities during the last seven financial years to 1999, with 48 of these being “wetline only” licensed fishing boats; 35 Rock Lobster licensed fishing boats; 27 Southern Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline (Managed Fishery and Supplementary) licensed fishing boats (see above); 11 licensed fishing boats that have subsequently been sold to the Fisheries Adjustment Scheme; 7 licensed fishing boats with Estuarine licence conditions; 6 South Coast Salmon licensed fishing boats; and various other licensed fishing boats, ranging from those with “herring conditions” to ones from the South West Salmon, Abalone and Abrolhos Islands and Mid West Trawl Managed Fisheries (Crowe et al., 1999).
Combined catch of WBG from all fisheries in W.A. is provided below, according to fishers’ statutory monthly returns. The difference between live weight and landed weight provides an indication of the proportion discarded. Figures are approximate only, due to minor errors in the reporting of this species, compared with other Labrids. It is also noted that figures collated from statutory returns may slightly underestimate total catch, because additional data sources, such as research logbooks and processors, are not included (W.A. State of the Fisheries Report, 2002-2003) (Table 10).

Table 10 Reported Catches of Western Blue Groper from W.A. waters, 1994-95 to 2003-04
Year	Live weight (kg)	Landed weight (kg)	Landed / live weight (%)
1994/95	37,286	27,408	73.5
1995/96	33,661	26,388	78.4
1996/97	35,275	27,196	77.1
1997/98	35,393	26,852	75.9
1998/99*	35,866	27,546	76.8
1999/00	33,801	27,053	80
2000/01	30,762	24,721	80
2001/02	29,031	22,766	78
2002/03	32,863	25,878	79
2003/04	43,020	33,780	78.5
W.A. Fisheries Research Services Division statistics 1994-2001, extracted from W.A. Fisheries web site (2003) and W.A. State of the Fisheries reports, 2000/2001, 2001/2002, 2002/2003, 2003/04, 2004/05* (an additional 1.25t live weight of unspecified groper sp. was also caught in 1998/99)

Western Australia – Recreational

WBG are taken by recreational fishers in Western Australia, particularly by boat fishers along the South Coast, as part of a mixed catch of reef fish species, such as Breaksea Cod, Harlequin Fish, Western Blue Groper, King George Whiting, Dhufish, Pink Snapper, Queen Snapper, Red Snapper, Trevally, and Samson Fish (Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c, 2005d). On the South Coast, recreational fishing effort has increased during the past decade, and fishing regulations were being revised in 2005-2006, in consultation with communities (Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c and 2005e).
A National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey in 2000-2001 (Henry and Lyle, 2003) reported that 2,649 WBG were caught and kept by recreational fishers in Western Australia during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001). An additional 578 gropers of unspecified species were caught in that State, some of which may have been A. gouldii.
A Western Australian Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996-1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri (the West Coast Bioregion), reported that up to 557 (SE 180) A. gouldii fish were kept by recreational boat fishers during that period, with 0 released after capture (Sumner and Williamson, 1999).
Some recreational clubs and associations keep records of the maximum sizes caught (e.g. Australian Anglers Association, WA Division Inc., 2002a).
WBG is a significant species for recreational boat fishers in southern W.A. (Fisheries Research Division, W.A. Fisheries, 2002). Recreational fishing participation between Augusta and the WA / SA border is estimated at around 20% of recreational anglers in W.A., or some 120,000 anglers per year, generating 2 million fishing days. Boat fishing is concentrated near major population centres, with Western Blue Groper being one of approximately 6 major target species for recreational fishers in the South Coast Bioregion (Fisheries Research Division, W.A. Fisheries, 2002).
In W.A. there are 3 types of charter boat activity, two of which (“fishing tours” and “restricted fishing tours”) are permitted to catch WBG. Charter boat companies off the central and south-western coast of W.A. promote the catching of reef fishes such as large Pink Snapper, Sweetlip Emperor, Baldchin Groper, Blue Groper and Dhufish, amongst other demersal fishes (Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c). The charter boat fishing sector in W.A. is known to take WBG (Crowe et al., 1999). In 2003, there were 2,751 “fishing only” tours (= approx. 28,715 fisher days) in the West Coast region; 1,287 fishing only tours (~ 10,448 fisher days) in the Gascoyne region; and 692 fishing only tours (~ 2,386 fisher days) in the South Coast  region (Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c). The figures for “fishing only” tours do not include those charters during which diving and other activities were undertaken in addition to fishing, hence total effort for the charter boat industry is higher than that presented in charter fishing statistics (e.g. in 2003, the total number of charter tours in the West Coast region was 5,395). WBG is not included in the list of ~ 17 main species taken by charter boat fisheries in W.A., and catches are grouped together with other finfish in the “Other Scalefish” category (e.g. Department of Fisheries, W.A., 2005c).
WBG, including adults, are also taken by shore-based fishers along the southern W.A. coast (e.g. Bremer Bay / Cape Knob area – see examples in Fishnet, 2003, and also Western Angler: http://www.westernangler.com.au/forum/m_23741/mpage_3/key_/tm.htm#24100).
WBG is promoted as a species for spear fishers to catch in Western Australia (Smith, 2000; International Freediving and Spearfishing News, undated). There are fishing reports of large adult WBG being taken along some areas of the south coast (e.g. http://www.westernangler.com.au/forum/m_49740/printable.htm); however there are no data available on the frequency of this practice.
In W.A., there is a daily bag limit of 1 WBG. The previous legal minimum size was 40 cm, with a proposal during the early 2000s to increase the size limit (Harrison, 2001). The legal minimum size is now 50 cm in the West Coast Bioregion (Department of Fisheries, 2004a).

Vulnerable Characteristics of the Species and Threatening Processes

The WBG is a long-lived, slow-growing, late-maturing, site-associated, nearshore reef fish species that has a strong population structure, and changes sex with age. It is also a slow-moving and inquisitive species, and adult WBG will often approach divers, and in some areas of S.A. they have also been known to approach fishing boats (Mensforth, 2001a; Australian Government DEH, 2002).  Species with such population dynamics and behaviour are recognised as being vulnerable to over-exploitation and population decline (e.g. see Gillanders 1995a; Smith et al., 1996; Baker, 2000, 2004 and references therein; Harrison, 2001; Pogonoski et al., 2002; Australian Government DEH, 2002; Shepherd, 2005). Recently, Coulson et al. (2007) stated that a combination of extreme longevity, late maturity and late sex change make WBG potentially very susceptible to even moderate levels of fishing.
WBG were also listed among the top 10 species / groups that suffer catch and release mortality by line fishing in S.A. (McLeay et al., 2002). Recreational line fishers report that WBG caught from depth are highly susceptible to barotrauma and do not usually survive catch-and-release (Mensforth, 2001a, Murton, 2008).
Feeding studies have shown that as the size of WBG increases, the time spent emergent from shelter increases (Shepherd and Brook, 2005), which would therefore increase the vulnerability of large groper to capture. Furthermore, fishers report that in some clear water areas, large blue groper can be seen from the surface (Mensforth, 2001a), which also increases their vulnerability to capture. Increased fishing technology during the past two decades, coupled with the rise of the charter boat industry, has resulted in more fishers having the means to locate and fish the offshore reefs (including, but not limited to, those around islands) on which large adult WBG reside. Fishers recognise that “the more remote the location, the bigger and more prolific are the groper it holds” (Mensforth, 2001a). Particularly during the past decade, the opportunities to catch very large WGB have been heavily promoted within the charter boat industry in South Australia. Therefore, the previous “refuge” provided by deeper water is no longer available for WBG. Most life stages of the species are vulnerable to capture. Whilst the larger groper are taken on offshore reefs and in deeper waters around islands, the smaller, green individuals inshore (which many fishers may not recognise as being groper) are taken recreationally and used as bait.
As is the case with the related eastern species A. viridis, if sex change is size-dependent and there is little flexibility in terms of size and age of sex change, then it may be easy to over-fish large males, resulting in a reduction in the number of spawning males (Gillanders, 1995a, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002). WBG is reported to have a very low resilience to exploitation, in terms of minimum population doubling time (Froese and Pauly, 2006).
WBG in South Australia has been described as “highly vulnerable to over-exploitation” (Jones et al., 1990). Researchers have long considered WBG to be a potentially threatened species, due to previous and ongoing depletion of inshore populations by spear-fishing and recreational line fishing (e.g. see Ottaway et al., 1980; Johnson, 1982; Glover, 1987; Shepherd and Brook, 2002 and Shepherd et al., 2002), and ongoing potential impacts on adult WBG offshore, due to bycatch in Commonwealth-managed shark fisheries, State-based scalefish fisheries, and charter boat fisheries.
The vulnerability of WBG to over-exploitation was first recognised during the 1960s (Glover, 1967). Subsequently, around 1980, divers reported that WBG numbers were rapidly declining in areas south of Adelaide, evidently as a consequence of exploitation by commercial and recreational fishers, including spear-fishers (Glover, 1987, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002). Johnson (1982) reported that WBG populations markedly declined from spear-fishing in the previous decade. Similarly, Hutchins and Swainston (1986) reported that (adult) WBG are generally found in lower numbers in the more accessible areas of S.A. and W.A., due to higher fishing pressures. Western Blue Groper was recommended for complete protection in S.A. as long ago as 1980 due to vulnerability of near-shore populations to spear-fishing impacts (see Ottaway et al., 1980). Recreational line fishers and spear fishers target various near-shore reefs and offshore island locations in S.A., where populations of WBG (including large adults) exist. Gomon and Russell (in Gomon et al., 1994) reported that the species has long been exploited by anglers and spear fishers, and that numbers have been markedly diminished, prompting fishing restrictions to permit the populations to recover (e.g. prohibition of WBG fishing in the S.A. Gulfs and Investigator Strait). Surveys of WBG in S.A. have shown that at sites where fishing intensity is high, the size of sub-adult WBG goes down, with examples including sites throughout southern Yorke and Fleurieu Peninsula, despite formal protection of WBG in these areas (Shepherd, 2006). This may be due to the practice of rock fishers incidentally catching small WBG (and retaining them for bait, in some cases), wherever they fish along the coast, perhaps not recognising the small, greenish “parrotfish” as a protected species (Shepherd, 2006).
According to Shepherd et al. (2002), a low incidental fishing mortality (e.g. from shore and boat-based anglers) may be enough to keep a slow-growing, recruitment-limited species such as WBG in very low densities, even in the absence of intense fishing pressure from any source.
Large adults are not commonly observed, particularly in the more accessible reef areas. For example, during a survey of 11 sites along western Eyre Peninsula, between Point Sinclair and Waterloo Bay, mature adults were recorded only at 2 of the sites, in low numbers (e.g. densities of less than 0.5 per 500m²), and only in waters deeper than 10 m (Shepherd and Brook, 2004). Similarly during a survey of 19 sites along southern Eyre Peninsula, adult WBG were only seen at 4 of the sites, and in low densities (less than 0.5 per 500m²) (Shepherd et al., 2005). An earlier survey of the northern and western coasts of KI recorded slightly higher densities of adults than during the Eyre Peninsula surveys, but still generally less than 1 per 500 m², and only in waters deeper than 10 m (Shepherd et al., 2002). Adult WBG mostly exist over a small depth range (i.e. 10 – 50+ m), which increases their vulnerability to over-exploitation.
Shepherd and Brook (2007) showed that the abundance of adults and sub-adults in S.A. was significantly reduced by fishing.
In W.A. it is recognised that the longevity of WBG increases their vulnerability to being over fished, and the sex change makes the species even more vulnerable to over fishing (Crowe et al., 1999). In W.A., WBG is defined for fisheries management purposes as a “Category 1” species. Fish in this category are generally long-lived, slow-growing, mature at four years-plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, and are of low abundance and/or highly targeted. Category 1 fish have low catch rates, and are highly valued for their fishing and eating qualities. For these reasons, Category 1 fish are considered to have a high risk of over-exploitation, and require a high degree of protection (Harrison, 2001; W.A. Department of Fisheries, 2004).
Inshore commercial fishing activities in W.A., such as gillnetting for sharks, may be impacting upon this species by taking it as bycatch (Pogonoski et al., 2002).
As with the Eastern Blue Groper (see Pogonoski et al., 2002), excessive localised recreational fishing and spear-fishing (both legal and illegal) have the potential to decrease the numbers of this species within its range. Pogonoski et al. (2002) suggested that recreational boat and shore fishers still have the potential to deplete groper numbers, and, as is the case with the eastern species A. viridis, the WBG needs to be closely monitored. Continued survival of Blue Gropers in southern Australian waters may rely on their protection from over-fishing by line (commercial and recreational, the latter also including charter boats) and spear-fishers (recreational) (Pogonoski et al., 2002), and this suggestion was supported by B. Hutchins (W.A. Museum, pers. comm., 2003).

Research Notes / Research Requirements

Generally, population surveys over the range are required to provide information on abundances, ecology and sex ratios. This has been particularly recommended for populations in W.A. (Pogonoski et al., 2002). However, recently (2002 – 2005) in South Australia there has been a program, led by Dr S. Shepherd and assisted by Reef Watch divers, to determine the distribution and relative abundance of WBG, including juveniles, in various parts of South Australia. Various aspects of the biology are also being investigated as part of this program (e.g. see Shepherd et al., 2002, 2005; Shepherd and Brook, 2002, 2003a, 2004, 2005, 2007; Shepherd, 2005). Surveys of deeper offshore waters that SCUBA divers cannot reach are also required as it is apparent that WBG are found beyond 30 m depth and are also more common in the offshore areas of the SE of SA than was previously thought (S. Bryars, DEH, pers. comm. 2008).
As is the case with the Eastern Blue Groper (Gillanders, 1995a, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002), knowledge of the reproductive biology of WBG is important for fisheries management. For example, little information is currently available regarding recruitment strength, although recent surveys in S.A. have shown the existence of apparent “hotspots” of recruitment, in which juvenile abundances are high (see Shepherd and Brook, 2004, Shepherd et al., 2005).

Management Requirements

As is the case with the Eastern Blue Groper, an investigation may be necessary, into the effectiveness of existing regulations in controlling the effects of recreational fishing on WBG populations. Although there are now minimum and maximum size limits on this species in South Australia, in addition to bag limits, recreational fishing data and anecdotal evidence indicate that both small and large WBG (outside of the minimum and maximum size limits) have regularly been taken in S.A.. It is also important that the compliance with the legal sizes be monitored and enforced, and compliance of recreational and charter boat fishers with catch limits is also essential, to ensure that this species is not over-exploited.
In the S.A. charter boat fishery, the number of WBG of both legal size (60cm - 100cm) and illegal size (i.e. less than 60cm or more than 1m) that are caught and released should be accurately recorded (and monitored) in charter boat statistics, because catch and release is likely a source of mortality, given the physiology, size, behaviour and depth range of WBG that are caught by charters.
The commercial catch (both target and bycatch) of this species should be reduced where possible, in both State and Commonwealth waters. There are now trip limits for this species in Commonwealth fisheries, and trip catches should be monitored where possible for compliance. Where possible, measures should be introduced to reduce trauma to (and handling of) trawl-caught fish which are subsequently released.
In South Australia, MSF fishers are now prohibited from taking groper, and it is important that compliance with this requirement occurs.
If possible, methods to reduce the bycatch of this species in rock lobster pots should be investigated.  For example, escape gaps, and any other effective fish exclusion devices, could become a requirement for rock lobster pots in all southern Australian fisheries. In South Australia, lobster fishers are now prohibited from taking groper, and it is important that compliance with this requirement occurs.
In all parts of the range, measures to reduce bycatch in commercial fisheries (hooks, long-lines, gill-net, traps, pots) should be undertaken where possible.
Populations of slow-growing, long-lived, strongly site-associated, barotrauma-susceptible reef fish species (such as Western Blue Groper) can be better protected by “no-take” marine reserves (Ottaway et al., 1980; Pollard, 1993; Baker, 2000; Pogonoski et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2003a; Coulsen et al., 2007), and an increased size and number of such reserves in S.A. could be used to replenish depleted populations of this species. During the past several decades, various parts of S.A. have been nominated for marine reserve status, due to their resident populations of WBGs. For example, in 1974, the Althorpe group of islands and surrounding waters were nominated by the former S.A. Department of Fisheries and Fauna Conservation, as a reserve to protect Blue Groper populations (Wynne, 1980). More recently, Shepherd and Brook (2002) suggested that no-take fishing areas along the south-western coast of Yorke Peninsula would provide better protection for Blue Groper populations that have been depleted by fishing over several decades, because the prohibition (under the Fisheries Act 1982) on fishing WBG in Investigator Strait waters appears not to have been effective. “Hotspots” of WBG recruitment warrant special protection (Shepherd et al., 2005). Examples of sites at which high abundance and densities of juveniles has been recorded include Memory Cove and Point Avoid (behind the reef) on southern Eyre Peninsula; Smooth Pool and Speeds Point on western Eyre Peninsula, and the Penneshaw area on north-eastern Kangaroo Island (Shepherd et al., 2002; Shepherd and Brook, 2004; Shepherd et al., 2005). Fishers have reported that juvenile WBG are also common in the sheltered macroalgae habitats in American River and Nepean Bay (cited in Shepherd et al., 2002).
The prohibition of fishing WBG in waters of Gulf St Vincent, Spencer Gulf and Investigator Strait provides some limited protection for this species, as do some of the existing Aquatic Reserves in S.A. (e.g. Aldinga Reef, and Troubridge Hill). Glover (1987, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002) reported that the closure to fishing has helped to arrest the decline of populations south of Adelaide. However, closure of the gulfs and Investigator Strait area to the fishing of Blue Groper provides little overall protection, other than to populations at the bottom of Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf, because (i) the species does not occur in the northern (nor most of the central) parts of either gulf, due to lack of suitable habitat and oceanographic conditions, and therefore only a small part of the species range in S.A. is formally protected, and (ii) it is clear that fishing of this species still occurs within the Investigator Strait area, despite the prohibition. For example, it is noted that a survey of WBG on Kangaroo Island (Shepherd et al., 2002) reported much anecdotal evidence that recreational fishers fishing from shore or on boats in Kangaroo Island waters, occasionally take WBG incidentally to targeted reef species. In S.A. waters, a large part of the species range is unprotected, and both adults and juveniles are fished widely around the State by a variety of fishing methods and sectors, as described in other parts of this synopsis.
An educational program (for example, including extension work by PIRSA fisheries officers and Fishwatch volunteers, and provision of education materials at boat ramps and tackle shops), that alerts recreational fishers to the vulnerability of WBG might assist in controlling the use of juvenile WBG (“green parrotfish”) bycatch as bait, in some cases. Similarly, an education program is recommended for charter boat operators that target large WBG in various parts of S.A. and W.A. (see section on Fishing).
Given the vulnerable population characteristics of this species (long life span, large maximum size, delayed reproduction, strong site association, slow movement / ease of capture), and the continuing target fishing pressure on adults, and bycatch of juveniles / sub-adults, a prohibition of fishing Blue Groper in all waters of South Australia is recommended, under the South Australian Fisheries Act. It is noted that in 2005, the S.A. Marine Scalefish Management Committee agreed to full protection of WBG under legislation in South Australia, hence the capture of this species by commercial and recreational fishers should be banned, which would also include removal of WBG from the current list of permitted catches in the S.A. charter boat industry.

Other Information

Western Blue Groper is currently one of the subjects of a community-based Reef Watch “Feral and In Peril” program in South Australia, which aims to monitor the distribution and abundance of a number of potentially threatened species at various diving and snorkelling locations around the State, particularly the southern metropolitan area.
In December 2002, the vulnerability of WBG to over-fishing, and the need for increased protection, was highlighted in a Coast Care Week media statement (http://www.deh.gov.au/media/dept-mr/cc02dec402.html).
The recent development of conservation zones within a pilot Marine Protected Area in the southern Fleurieu  / north-eastern Kangaroo Island / Pages Islands and Encounter Bay region, may assist the protection of WBG populations in part of that region, by (i) reminding the fishing community of the fact that fishing for WBG is already formally prohibited in most of that area, and (ii) by providing additional protected zones in which fishing is not permitted – e.g. in Encounter Bay (see http://www.deh.sa.gov.au/coasts/pdfs/encounter_marine_park_zp_tech.pdf).
Spear-fishing during the 1960s and 1970s appears to have had a significant effect on the abundance of a related species, the Eastern Blue Groper in N.S.W. (Smith et al., 1996). The Eastern Blue Groper was also protected from spear-fishing in N.S.W. because of perceived population declines due to spear-fishing activities (Smith et al., 1996, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002). Protection from commercial fishing and spear-fishing in N.S.W. waters has continued to help rebuild Achoerodus viridis numbers, to the point where it is commonly seen on some rocky reefs within its range (Smith et al., 1996, cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002).
WBG are popular with divers, and locations in both W.A. and S.A. where this species can be seen, are frequently promoted by dive groups and clubs.
In W.A., a number of marine parks offer some limited protection for this species; however fishing for WBG is popular, particular in southern W.A. (see section above, on fishing). Also in W.A. a number of Fish Habit Protection Areas (FHPAs) aid in the protection of populations of large, site-associated reef fish species, such as Baldchin Groper, Breaksea Cod, WBG, Harlequin Fish, emperors, parrotfishes, Pink Snapper, Queen Snapper, and Dhufish (CALM, 2005b). In 2003, during a proposal period for “The Capes” Marine Park, the Department of Conservation and Land Management in W.A. reported that priority species of conservation concern included residents such as WBG, Dhufish, Harlequin Fish, and King George Whiting in Geographe Bay (CALM, 2005c).
WBG is reported to be one of the 16 species chosen for a community-based monitoring program of abundance of nearshore fishes in W.A., between Kalbarri and Esperance (Department of Conservation and Land Management, 2003).
In Victoria, the Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park (Plummer et al., 2003) offers some protection for the WBG in that area.
In New South Wales, the closely related eastern species of blue groper A. viridis, is partially protected (from spearfishing and commercial fishing by any method, although recreational line fishing is still permitted) (see Pogonoski et al., 2002).

Support for S.A. Listing:

Barry Hutchins (ex-WA Museum); Graham Edgar (University of Tasmania); Scoresby Shepherd (Senior Research Fellow)